There is no consensus on who the pharaoh who appears in Exodus was. The debate has continued for many centuries and is still not settled. Several factors complicate identifying the pharaoh, such as biblical anonymity and the Egyptian practice of damnatio memoriae. Scholars have proposed a surprisingly large list of pharaoh candidates, ranging from Pepi I, who reigned from approximately 2321 to 2287 BCE, to Bakenranef, reigning from around 725 to 720 BCE. These earliest and latest theories have little support. So, let’s see who the two most likely candidates are.
Obstacles to Identifying the Pharaoh From the Exodus
Several factors contribute to the difficulty in identifying the pharaoh from Exodus. The first is the silence of the biblical account. The Bible does not mention any of the New Kingdom-era pharaohs by name. It only refers to them by the title “Pharaoh.” The Bible does, however, mention later pharaohs by name, like Pharaoh Shishak (943-922 BCE, 1 Kings 14:25; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9), Pharaoh Necho II (610-595 BCE, 2 Kings 23:29-35; Jeremiah 46:2), Pharaoh Hophra (589-570 BCE, Jeremiah 44:30), and Pharaoh Tirhakah (690-664 BCE, 2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).
The second challenge is lining up the biblical account with Egyptian records and archaeological evidence. On the one hand, many scholars believe the biblical account is ahistorical, rendering it meaningless. On the other, the Egyptians practiced damnatio memoriae. This Latin term means “condemnation of memory,” and refers to erasing a name, images, or events from records, especially when they were negative or reflected badly on Egyptian heritage. Thutmose III, for example, erased images and inscriptions relating to Hatshepsut, and Tutankhamun and Horemheb attempted to erase Akhenaten from memory and reversed his monotheistic reforms. The Exodus would undoubtedly be an event the Egyptians would want to erase from memory.
Following biblical chronology, the Exodus dates to the 15th century BCE. 1 Kings 6:1 states that the Exodus occurred 480 years before Solomon’s 4th year as king, which was 966 BCE. It dates the Exodus to 1446 BCE and implies Amenhotep II was the pharaoh of the Exodus.
Exodus 1:11 suggests a later date for the Exodus. This verse says the Israelites built the cities of Pithom and Ramses. Pi-Ramesses was built under Pharaoh Ramses II (1279-1213 BCE), meaning the Exodus would have occurred during his reign or shortly after, around 1225 BCE, which makes the son of Ramses II, Pharaoh Merneptah another, though much less likely, possibility.
Amenhotep II (1452–1426 BCE)
Arguments for Amenhotep as the Pharaoh of the Exodus
Following the biblical timeline, the Exodus of Israel from Egypt happened in 1446 BCE which falls in the reign of Amenhotep II. 1 Kings 6:1 aligns the fourth year of Solomon’s reign, which was 966 BCE, to the 480th year from the Exodus.
Other factors support this view. Amenhotep II was not the firstborn son of Thutmose III and therefore did not die during the tenth plague. Thutmose III had an older son, Amenemhat, who seems to have passed away from either illness or an accident. The titles associated with him show that he was preparing to take the throne of Egypt. From a believer’s perspective, if Amenhotep had been the eldest son, he would have died during the last plague.
The historical record shows a sudden and surprising lack of military activity by Amenhotep’s forces for some time after 1446 BCE. Though the record does not record their destruction, the lack of such a record would likely be due to damnatio memoriae. Amenhotep II would not have recorded such a devastating loss of his armies to rebellious slaves as part of his legacy. The loss recorded in Exodus 14:28 and Exodus 15:19 would, however, explain the inactivity.
Amenhotep II intentionally destroyed and removed images of Hatshepsut, the female pharaoh of Egypt who ruled for two decades and had overshadowed his father. She may have been Moses’s adoptive mother. Some scholars suggest attempts to erase her memory may have been in retaliation against the one who saved Moses as a baby and allowed him to grow up in the palace, just to have him betray and embarrass the Egyptians later in life.
Arguments Against Amenhotep as the Pharaoh of the Exodus
Some have suggested loot lists from Egypt show efforts by Egypt to rebuild an army and recover the losses at the Red Sea. These lists include capturing more than 100,000 slaves, and more than 1,000 chariots, among other items. These lists date to around 1450 BCE which is too early to be a response to the Exodus. The looting took place a few years before the biblical Exodus date.
Psalm 136:15 suggests that Pharaoh died with his armies, and some scholars argue that it proves that Amenhotep could not have been the pharaoh of the Exodus. Amenhotep ruled for decades after the date of the supposed Exodus event and, evidently, did not die in the Red Sea. Scholars date Psalm 136 to the time of David or later into the Second Temple Period.
If the pharaoh died in the Red Sea, the text of Exodus 14 and 15 would likely have mentioned it. Instead, the King James Version says, “… the horse of Pharaoh went in with his chariots and with his horsemen into the sea.” Newer translations, like the American Standard Version, The English Standard Version, and the International Standard Version, render it “the horses of Pharaoh,” using the plural rather than the singular. The former may seem like it implies the pharaoh joined the chase, while the latter does not. The text is somewhat ambiguous and allows for an interpretation that does not necessitate the pharaoh’s death.
Scholarly debates about the chronology of the Egyptian record have some claim that Amenhotep only started his reign after 1446 BCE. Amenhotep did not initiate the campaign to deface images of Hatshepsut. Thutmose III initiated the campaign and Amenhotep merely continued and intensified it, eliminating the Exodus as the motivation. There is no direct archaeological evidence to link Amenhotep with the Exodus.
Ramses II (1279–1213 BCE)
Arguments for Ramses II as the Pharaoh of the Exodus
A popular and common view on who the pharaoh of the Exodus was, is reflected in the Hollywood versions of the story today. They identify Ramses II as the reigning pharaoh.
Exodus 1:11 says, “Therefore they set taskmasters over them [the Israelites] to afflict them with heavy burdens. They built for Pharaoh store cities, Pithom and Raamses.” Most scholars date the construction of the Pi-Ramesses to the reign of Ramses II. The city would be the new capital of Egypt. It is well documented that he used foreign labor for construction projects.
Ramses II was a powerful ruler who reigned for 66 years. The Exodus narrative fits the status of Ramses II and likely gave rise to the popular perception that he was the Exodus pharaoh.
In addition, the Merneptah Stele, dated to 1211 or 1210, mentions the Israelites in Canaan during the reign of the son and successor of Ramses, Merneptah. Along with the dates during which Canaanite cities like Jericho and Hazor were destroyed, it seems to support the later Exodus date.
Arguments Against Ramses II as the Pharaoh of the Exodus
The biblical timeline of 1 Kings 6:1 cannot be reconciled with the reign of Ramses II. His reign started more than a century and a half after the time the Bible suggests.
Like Amenhotep II, the record of the reign of Ramses II also lacks direct historical or archaeological evidence for the Exodus. Likewise, Ramses II did not drown in the Red Sea as Psalms 136:15 may suggest.
Some scholars point out that the name of the city of Ramses may be an anachronism. It may have been named after Ramses II later in history. There is no evidence from his time suggesting Hebrew slaves built the city. Many scholars dispute the dates of the destruction of cities like Jericho, arguing evidence shows dates too early to align with a late Exodus.
The Pharaoh From Exodus: In Conclusion
Considering the evidence for and against the two primary candidates, it seems more likely that Amenhotep II was the pharaoh of the Exodus. Though some evidence is circumstantial, the arguments for Amenhotep II as the pharaoh of the Exodus seem to fit the context much better than the alternative. The lack of military activity and the loot lists would indicate attempts at rebuilding an army.
Such an endeavor would be a necessity after the defeat of the Egyptian forces and would take significant time, which explains the military inactivity. The loot lists, however, date to a couple of years prior to the Exodus date determined by biblical chronology. There is no evidence that defacing images of Hatshepsut related to her possible connection with Moses, but it would make sense if there was such a connection.
Arguments against identifying Amenhotep as pharaoh of the Exodus are not strong. Thutmose III and Amenhotep II may have desired to remove Hatshepsut from Egyptian records because she broke the norm of men reigning as Pharaoh. The damnatio memoriae began before the reign of Amenhotep and would not eliminate an escalation of the practice if the Exodus did occur during his reign.
The only real evidence for Ramses as Pharaoh of the Exodus is the reference to Pithom and Raamses in Exodus 1:11. It is reasonable that later editors of the Book of Exodus used the anachronistic name to make the verse more relevant to the era and context they lived in. The disputed destruction dates of some Canaanite cities are too early to fit the reign of Ramses as the Exodus era. That means there is no significant reason remaining to consider him the pharaoh of the Exodus.
